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Nouns of Agency

236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.

a. Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots or verb stems by means of the suffixes.

-tor (-sor) [m.], -trīx [f.]
can-tor, can-trīx singer	can-ere (root CAN) to sing
vic-tor, vic-trīx conquerer (victorious)	vinc-ere (VIC) to conquer
tōn-sor (for †tōnd-tor) tōns-trīx (for †tōns-trix) hair-cutter	tond-ēre (root TOND) to shear
petī-tor candidate	pet-ĕre (PET; stem petī-) to seek

By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs.

viā-tor traveller, from via way (but cf. the verb inviō)

Note 1— The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the Supine ending -tum (-sum), and is added to the same form of root or verb stem as that ending. The stem-ending is tōr- (§ 234.2.15), which is shortened in the nominative.

Note 2— The feminine form is always -trīx. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor (expultrīx) and tōnsor (tōnstrīx).

b. t- (m.) or (f.), added to verb stems makes nouns in -es (-itis; -etis; stem it-, et-) descriptive of a character.

prae-stes, -stitis guardian
(verb stem from root STA, stāre stand)

teges, -etis a coverer, a mat
(verb stem tege-, cf.tegō cover)

pedes, -itis foot-soldier
(pēs, ped-is foot, and ī-, root of īre go)

c. -ō (Genitive -ōnis, stem ōn-) [m.], added to verb stems¹ indicates a person employed in some specific art or trade.

com-bibō a drinking companion
(root BIB, as in bibō, bibere drink)

gerō, -ōnis a carrier
(GES in gerō, gerere carry)

Note— This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal characteristics (cf. § 255).

Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns

237. Names of Actions are confused, through their terminations, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with concrete nouns denoting means and instrument.

They are also used to express the concrete result of an action (as often in English).

Thus legiō is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body of soldiers collected); cf. levy in English.

238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from roots and verb stems by means of the endings.

a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots—

NOM.	-or [m.]	-ēs [f.]	-us, n.
GEN.	-ōris	-is	-eris or -oris
STEM	ōr- (earlier ōs-)	i-	er- (earlier (^e/_os-)

tim-or fear	timēre to fear
am-or love	amāre to love
sēd-ēs seat	sedēre to sit
caed-ēs slaughter	caedere to kill
genus birth, race	[GEN] to be born (root of gignō bear)

Note— Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots.

facinus [from a supposed root FACIN]

b. Apparently added to roots or verb stems.

NOM.	-iō, [f.]	-tiō (-siō) [f.]	-tūra (-sūra) [f.]	-tus [m.]
GEN.	-iōnis	-tiōnis (-siōnis	-tūrae (-sūrae)	-tūs (-sūs)
STEM	iōn-	tiōn- (siōn-)	tūrā- (sūrā-)	tu- (su-)

leg-iō a collecting (levy), a legion	leger to collect
reg-iō a direction, a region	regere to direct
vocā-tiō a calling	vocāre to call
mōlī-tiō a toiling	mōlīrī to toil
scrīp-tūra a writing	scrībere to write
sēn-sus (for †sent-tus) feeling	sentīre to feel

Note 1— -tiō, -tūra, -tus are added to roots or verb stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change (cf. § 236.a, Note 1 above). Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see § 178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no corresponding verb in use.

senātus  senate (cf. senex)
mentiō  mention (cf. mēns
fētūra  offspring (cf. fētus)
litterātūra  literature (cf. litterae)
cōnsulātus  consulship (cf. cōnsul)

Note 2— Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. § 234.2.3); -iō is a compound formed by adding ōn- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i).

diciō (cf. -dicus and dicis)

-tiō is a compound formed by adding ōn- to stems in ti-.

gradātiō (cf. gradātim)

-tūra is formed by adding -ra, Feminine of -rus, to stems in tu-.

nātūra from nātus
statūra from status (cf. figūra, of like meaning, from a simple u- stem, †figu-s; and mātūrus, Mātūta).

239. Nouns denoting acts , or means and results of acts, are formed from roots or verb stems by the use of the suffixes.

-men, [n.], -mentum, [n.], mōnium, [n.], mōnia [f.]
ag-men line of march, band	root AG, agere to lead
regi-men rule regi-mentum rule	regi- (rege-), stem of regere to direct
certā-men contest, battle	certā-, stem of certāre to contend

So colu-men (pillar), mō-men (movement), nō-men (name), and flū-men (stream).

testi-mōnium testimony	testārī to witness
queri-mōnia complaint	querī to complain

-mōnium and -mōnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other nouns and from adjectives.

sānctimōnia sanctity (sānctus holy)
mātrimōnium marriage ( māter mother)

Note— Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. § 234.2.14); -mentum is a compound of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men.

mōmen movement (Lucr.)
mōmentum (later)

So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men. -mōnium and -mōnia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed from mōn- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-.

almus (stem almo-) fostering
Almōn (a river near Rome)
alimōnia support

But the last was formed directly from alō when -mōnia had become established as a supposed primary suffix.

240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots and verb stems (rarely from noun stems) by means of the neuter suffixes.

-bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum
pā-bulum fodder	pāscere to feed
sta-bulum stall	stāre to stand
vehi-culum wagon	vehere to carry
candēlā-brum candlestick	candēla candle (a secondary formation)
sepul-crum tomb	sepelīre to bury
claus-trum (†claud-trum) bar	claudere to shut
arā-trum plough	arāre to plough

Note— -trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§ 234.2.15), with the stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related; -culum is the same as -clum; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234.II.9-10) and -brum is closely related.

a. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives.

fā-bula tale	fārī to speak
rīdi-culus laughable	rīdēre to laugh
fa-ber smith	facere to make
late-bra hiding-place	latēre to hide
tere-bra auger	terere to bore
mulc-tra milk pail	mulgēre to milk

241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective stems, rarely from noun stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suffixes.

-ia (-iēs), -tia (-tiēs), -tās, -tūs, -tūdō
audāc-ia boldness	audāx bold
pauper-iēs poverty	pauper poor
trīsti-tia sadness	trīstis sad
sēgni-tiēs laziness	sēgnis lazy
boni-tās goodness	bonus good
senec-tūs age	senex old
māgni-tūdō greatness	māgnus great

1. In stems ending in o- or ā- the stem vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia) and appears as i before -tās, -tūs, -tia (as in boni-tās, above).

2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tās:

loquāx (stem loquāc-), loquāci-tās

BUT
hones-tās
mâies-tās (as if from old adjectives in -es)
ūber-tās
volup-tās

O after i is changed to e.

pius (stem pio-), pie-tās
socius, socie-tās

a. In like manner -dō and -gō (f.) form abstract nouns, but are associated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems.

cupī-dō desire from cupere to desire
(as if from stem cupī-)

dulcē-dō sweetness, cf. dulcis sweet
(as if from a stem dulcē-, cf. dulcē-scō)

lumbā-gō lumbago, cf. lumbus loin
(as if from †lumbō, -āre)

Note— Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234.2.11). -tia is formed by adding -ia to stems with a t suffix:

mīlitia, from mīles (stem mīlit-)
molestia from molestus
clēmentia from clēmēns

whence by analog, mali-tia, avāri-tia. -tās is inherited, but its component parts, tā- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense.

senecta from senex
sēmen-tis from sēmen

-tūs is tū- + ti-, cf. servitū-dō. -dō and -gō appear only with long vowels, as from verb stems, by a false analogy; but -dō is do- + ōn-

cupidus, cupīdō
gravidus, gravēdō (cf. gravē-scō)
albidus, albēdō (cf. albēscō)
formidus hot, formīdō (cf. formīdulōsus), (hot flash?) fear

-gō is possibly co- + ōn-; cf. vorāx, vorāgō, but cf. Cethēgus. -tūdō is compounded of -dō with tu- stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb stems in u- (cf. volūmen, from volvō):

cōnsuētū-dō, valētū-dō, habitū-dō

whence servitūdō (cf. servitūs, -tūtis).

b. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and groups, are formed from noun stems and perhaps from verb stems by means of the suffixes.

-ium, -tium
hospit-ium hospitality, an inn²	hospes (gen. hospit-is) a guest
collēg-ium colleagueship, a college	collēga a colleague
auspic-ium soothsaying an omen	auspex (gen. auspic-is) a soothsayer
gaud-ium joy	gaudēre to rejoice
effug-ium escape	effugere to escape
benefic-ium a kindness	benefacere to benefit cf. beneficus
dēsīder-ium longing	dēsīderāre to miss from †dē-sīdēs out of place [of missing soldiers]
adverb-ium adverb	ad verbum [added] to a verb
interlūn-ium time of new moon	inter lūnās between moons
rēgifug-ium flight of the kings	rēgis fuga flight of a king
servi-tium slavery the slave class	servus a slave

Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium

collēg-ium, from collēga

Note— -ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary. -tium is formed like -tia, by adding -ium to stems with t.

exit-ium
equit-ium (cf. exitus, equitēs)

So, by analogy, calvitium and servitium (from calvus, servus).

c. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are formed from noun stems (confused with verb stems) by means of the suffixes.

-nia [f.]; -nium, lium, cinium [n.]
pecū-nia money (chattels)	pecū cattle
contici-nium the hush of night	conticēscere to become still
auxi-lium help	augēre to increase
lātrō-cinium robbery	latrō robber cf. latrōcinor rob (implying an adjective †latrōcinus)