1. Aristotle is analyzing the techniques and strategies that someone can use in court. Here he is discussing the topic of oaths. Oaths were a regular part of ancient legal proceedings, where participants swore a sacred oath to honor a contract. This passage repeatedly refers to one or both parties to the agreement administering (διδόναι) an oath or taking (λαμβάνειν) an oath: Aristotle begins by saying that there are four possibilities for a speaker in court with respect to an oath:

ἢ γὰρ δίδωσι καὶ λαμβάνει, ἢ οὐδέτερον, ἢ τὸ μὲν, τὸ δ ̓ οὔ, καὶ τούτων ἢ δίδωσιν μὲν, οὐ λαμβάνει δέ, ἢ λαμβάνει μὲν, δίδωσιν δὲ οὔ.

Aristotle Rhetoric 1.27-32.1377a

 

2. This passage comes from one of Plato’s dramatic dialogues. Socrates has been interrogating a prophet named Euthyphro about piety and the relationship between humans and gods. Socrates has gotten Euthyphro, reluctantly, to characterize this relationship as trade or a business transaction (ἐμπορία). Next Socrates asks:

τίς ἡ ὠφελία τοῖς θεοῖς τυγχάνει οὖσα ἀπὸ τῶν δώρων ὧν παρ’ ἡμῶν λαμβάνουσιν; ἃ μὲν γὰρ διδόασι παντὶ δῆλον (ἐστί)· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἡμῖν ἐστιν ἀγαθὸν ὅ τι ἂν μὴ ἐκεῖνοι δῶσιν. ἃ δὲ παρ’ ἡμῶν λαμβάνουσιν, τί ὠφελοῦνται; ἢ τοσοῦτον αὐτῶν πλεονεκτοῦμεν κατὰ τὴν ἐμπορίαν, ὥστε πάντα τὰ ἀγαθὰ παρ’ αὐτῶν λαμβάνομεν, ἐκεῖνοι δὲ παρ’ ἡμῶν οὐδέν; Plato Euthyphro 14e9-15a4

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    Notes

    1. οὐδέτερον neither

    ἢ τὸ μὲν, τὸ δ ̓ οὔ adverbial, “or this one but not the other” (S 1111).

    τούτων (gen pl) these

    2. ὠφελία (nom sg) ὠφελία, ὠφελίας, ἡ benefit

    θεοῖς (dat pl) θεός, θεοῦ, ὁ god

    τυγχάνει οὖσα happens to be

    δώρων (gen pl) δῶρον, δώρου, τό gifts

    δῶσιν = διδόασιν

    ἡμῶν (gen pl) us

    παντὶ (dat sg) ὁ everyone

    δῆλον (nom/acc sg) τό clear

    ἡμῖν (dat pl) us

    ἀγαθὸν (nom/acc sg) τό good

    ἂν marks a hypothetical situation

    ὠφελοῦνται (3rd pl) benefit (from something)

    τοσοῦτον (adverb) so much

    πλεονεκτόω be superior (+ gen of that which is being compared)

    ἐμπορίαν (acc sg) ἐμπορία, ἐμπορίας, ἡ business, trade, barter

    ἀγαθὰ (nom/acc pl) τό good

    οὐδὲν (nom/acc sg) τό nothing

    πάντα (nom/acc pl) τό everything

    New Vocabulary

    List 1: Verb-Stem Presents

    ἀκούω hear

    βουλεύω deliberate, resolve

    θύω sacrifice

    κελεύω order

    κλαίω cry out

    κωλύω prevent

    λέγω say

    λύω loosen, destroy

    ἀπολύω release, divorce, forgive

    παύω stop

    περισσεύω be left over, increase, exceed

    πιστεύω trust, rely on, believe in (+ dat.)

    πορεύω carry

    φύω produce, bring forth, grow

     

    List 2: –άνω Verbs (verb stems are in parentheses)

    (ἁμαρτ-) ἁμαρτάνω miss, fail, make a mistake

    (βη-) βαίνω walk, come, go

    ἀναβαίνω walk up, go aboard, enter

    συμβαίνω happen, agree, result

    (ἐλα-) ἐλαύνω drive, set in motion

    (λαβ-) λαμβάνω take, grab; receive, get

    καταλαμβάνω seize, catch up to, arrest

    παραλαμβάνω take, receive, accept

    ὑπολαμβάνω take up, reply, suppose

    (λαθ-) λανθάνω escape notice of

    (μαθ-) μανθάνω learn

    (πι-) πίνω drink

    (τεμ-) τέμνω cut

    (τυχ-) τυγχάνω meet (+gen)

     

    –σκω Verbs (verb stems are in parentheses)

    (θαν-) θνῄσκω or ἀποθνῄσκω die

    (γνω-) γιγνώσκω know; Koine: γινώσκω

    ἀναγιγνώσκω read

    ἐπιγιγνώσκω know, recognize, understand

    (διδαχ-) διδάσκω teach

    (εὑρ-) εὑρίσκω find

    (μνη-) μιμνήσκω remind

    Previous Vocabulary

    ἀγών ἀγῶνος ὁ contest

    αἷμα αἵματος τό blood

    αἰών αἰῶνος ὁ age, eternity

    ἀκούω hear

    ἀλλά but

    ἁμαρτάνω miss, fail, make a mistake

    ἀμφί (prep. + gen.) around, for the sake of; (prep. + dat.) around, near; (prep. + acc.) around, about

    ἀνά (prep. + dat.) upon; (prep. + acc.) up, through

    ἀναβαίνω walk up, go aboard, enter

    ἀναγιγνώσκω read

    ἀνίστημι raise, appoint

    ἀντί (prep. + gen.) opposite, instead of, for the sake of

    ἀπό (prep. + gen.) from

    ἀποδίδωμι give back

    ἀποθνῄσκω die

    ἀπόλλυμι kill, destroy

    ἀπολύω release, divorce, forgive

    ἄρα therefore

    ἄρχων ἄρχοντος ὁ ruler

    αὐτός αὐτή αὐτό self, same, he/she/it

    ἀφίημι send forth; let go, allow

    βαίνω walk, come, go

    βουλεύω deliberate, resolve

    γάρ for

    γιγνώσκω know; Koine: γινώσκω

    γράμμα γράμματος τό letter

    δαίμων δαίμονος ὁ divinity

    δέ and, but

    δείκνυμι show

    διά (prep. + gen.) through; (prep. + acc.) because of

    διδάσκω teach

    δίδωμι give

    διό therefore

    εἰ, εἴπερ if

    εἰς/ἐς (prep. + acc.) into

    εἰμί be

    εἴτε…εἴτε either…or

    ἐκ (prep. + gen.) from

    ἐκεῖνος ἐκείνη ἐκεῖνο that

    ἐλαύνω drive, set in motion

    ἐλπίς ἐλπίδος ἡ hope

    ἐν (prep. + dat.) in

    ἐπεί after, since, when

    ἐπί (prep. + gen.) on, at; (prep. + dat.) on, for the purpose of, because of; (prep. + acc.) against

    ἐπιγιγνώσκω know, recognize, understand

    ἐπιτίθημι put on

    εὑρίσκω find

    ἕως until, while

    ζεύγνυμι yoke, join together

    but

    ἡγεμών ἡγεμόνος ὁ guide, commander

    θέλημα θέλματος τό will, wish, desire

    θνῄσκω die

    θύω sacrifice

    ἵημι throw

    ἵνα where

    ἵστημι stand

    καθίστημι set down, establish

    καί and

    κατά (prep. + gen.) down, against; (prep. + acc.) down, along, according to

    καταλαμβάνω seize, catch up to, arrest

    κελεύω order

    κλαίω cry out

    κωλύω prevent

    λαμβάνω take, grab; receive, get

    λανθάνω escape notice of

    λέγω say

    λύω loosen, destroy

    μανθάνω learn

    μέν…δέ on the one hand... on the other hand

    μετά (prep. + gen.) with; (prep. + acc.) after, behind

    μέχρι until

    μή no, not (moods other than indicative)

    μήτε and not (with moods other than indicative)

    μήτε…μήτε neither…nor (with moods other than indicative)

    μίγνυμι mix

    μιμνήσκω remind

    μυριάς μυριάδος ἡ ten thousand; countless

    νύξ νυκτός ἡ night

    ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε this

    ὄμνυμι swear (an oath); swear to

    ὄνομα ὀνόματος τό name

    ὅθεν from where

    ὅς, ἥ, ὅ who, which, that

    ὅσπερ, ἥπερ, ὅπερ the same/very one(s) who, which, that

    ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι anyone who, anything which, whoever, whatever

    ὅτε when

    ὅτι because

    οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ no, not (indicative mood)

    οὖν therefore

    οὖς, ὠτός τό ear

    οὔτε and not (with indicative mood)

    οὔτε…οὔτε neither…nor (with indicative mood)

    παῖς, παιδός ὁ child

    παρά (prep. + gen.) from; (prep. + dat.) with, near; (prep. + acc.) to, throughout, against

    παραδίδωμι hand over, deliver

    παραλαμβάνω take, receive, accept

    πάρειμι be present

    παρίστημι present, offer, supply

    πατρίς πατρίδος ἡ fatherland

    παύω stop

    περί (prep. + gen.) about; (prep. + dat.) about; (prep. + acc.) near, around

    περισσεύω be left over, increase, exceed

    πίνω drink

    πιστεύω trust, rely on, believe in (+ dat.)

    πνεῦμα πνεύματος τό wind, breath, spirit

    πορεύω carry

    πούς, ποδός ὁ foot

    πρᾶγμα πράγματος τό thing; (pl.) circumstances, affairs, business

    πρίν (w/indicative verbs) until; (w/infinitive verbs) before

    πρό (prep. + gen.) before, in front of

    πρός (prep. + gen.) toward, (swear) by; (prep. + dat.) by, in addition to; (prep. + acc.) toward

    προστίθημι add to

    ῥήγνυμι break, shatter

    ῥῆμα ῥήματος τό word, saying

    σκεδάννυμι scatter, disperse

    σπέρμα σπέρματος τό seed, offspring

    στόμα στόματος τό mouth

    συμβαίνω happen, agree, result

    σύν (prep. + dat.) with (the help of)

    σχῆμα σχήματος τό form, appearance

    σῶμα σώματος τό body

    τε and

    τέμνω cut

    τίθημι put, place, make

    τις, τι (enclitic) someone, something, anyone, anything

    τίς, τί who? what? which?

    τοίνυν therefore

    τυγχάνω meet (+gen)

    ὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water

    ὑπάρχοντα ὑπαρχόντων τά circumstances, property

    ὑπέρ (prep. + gen.) over, on behalf of; (prep. + acc.) above, over, beyond

    ὑπό (prep. + gen.) under, by; (prep. + dat.) under; (prep. + acc.) under

    ὑπολαμβάνω take up, reply, suppose

    φημί say, assert

    φύω produce, bring forth, grow

    φῶς, φωτός τό light

    χρῆμα χρήματος τό thing; (pl.) money

    ὡς as

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