The rhythm of the Greek hexameter depends on the time occupied in pronouncing successive syllables, and is quite independent of word accent. It resembles, therefore, modern music rather than English poetry. There is, indeed, a regular recurrence of metrically stressed syllables § 8), but rhymed syllables are rare and perhaps accidental.
A short syllable contains a short vowel; this may be followed by a single consonant, either in the same word or in the next.
A syllable may be long either by nature or by position: 1. By nature, if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong. E. g. 2. By position, if its vowel, although naturally short, is followed by two (or three) consonants or a double consonant ( It does not matter whether the two consonants are both in the same word with the short vowel or not. One may end the word, and the other begin the next; or they may both begin the next word. Although a mute and a following liquid generally have the value of two consonants ( § 3.2), and in combination with a preceding short vowel regularly make a long syllable, it occasionally happens that such a syllable is short if the liquid is Each verse contains six feet, corresponding to bars in music; and each foot, except the last, consists of one long syllable followed by two short ones, or of two long syllables. Two short syllables are equivalent in value to one long. A foot is thus indicated, graphically: The sixth foot always consists of two syllables; and these may be both long, or one long (the first) and one short. The first syllable of each foot is emphasized in oral reading. Roman writers referring these terms to the falling and rising inflection of the voice used them in exactly the reverse way. Some modern books continue the Roman use. The foot that consists of a long and two short syllables is called a dactyl. Two long syllables in one foot compose a spondee. One long and one short syllable, found only in the sixth foot § 7), make a trochee. The whole verse ( In the first five feet the poet used dactyls or spondees at his pleasure, but dactyls seem to have been preferred in certain places, e. g. in the third foot, and in the fourth foot before the bucolic diaeresis § 19). The fifth foot, in particular, is generally a dactyl; yet here too a spondee is not uncommon; such lines are called spondaic lines, and are said to occur, in Homer, in the proportion of one to eighteen. They are much less frequent in Vergil. Lines containing no dactyls are very rare. Pauses.—If a word ends within a foot (i. e. if the foot is cut in two), the interruption is called caesura (Latin for ‘cutting’). If the end of a word coincides with the division between two feet (i. e. with the bar of musical notation), the coincidence is called diaeresis (Greek It is at these points, after a caesura or a diaeresis, that the voice may pause in reciting a verse. But unless a caesura or diaeresis coincides with a natural pause in sense, it is generally neglected; where such a coincidence does occur, however, the principal caesura or principal diaeresis is said to be found. Every verse contains at least one pause—almost always a principal caesura. Following is a metrical scheme indicating the commonest position of the principal caesura and diaeresis: The sign A caesura can not occur before enclitics or other words that can not begin a sentence ( If a caesura occurs after the thesis of a foot, it is called masculine; if in the arsis, that is, between two short syllables, it is called feminine. The third foot generally contains the principal caesura. The feminine caesura is more frequent than the masculine in this foot, the proportion between the two being approximately 4 to 3 (based on La Roche's figures). For examples of the feminine caesura see B 400-410; of the masculine, A 1 and 8. A not uncommon pause is the masculine caesura of the fourth foot. E. g. A 3 (after Such verses (indicated in § 17) often have a pause after the thesis of the second foot also. E. g. A 106, Diaeresis is not so important as caesura in constituting a pause. The principal diaeresis, when it occurs, is commonly found between the fourth and fifth feet. This is known as the bucolic diaeresis, because it was a favorite with the bucolic poets, of whom the most famous was Theocritus (third century B. C.). How significant it is in Homer may be seen from the fact that the narrative sometimes comes to a complete stop at this point, and a new subject is introduced, as in A 348 and 430. Less common than the bucolic diaeresis is the one that sometimes occurs between the first and second feet. E. g. A 32, A caesura that was almost always avoided by the Greek epic poets is the feminine caesura of the fourth foot. But compare B 479, To accustom the ear to the rhythm of the Greek dactylic hexameter it is advisable to read the lines aloud from the very beginning of the study of Homer. The natural flow of the hexameter, in perfect time, soon becomes a matter of instinct and requires little conscious foresight. Lines 1 and 2 of Book I (A) are scanned: (For Lines 43-47 of A thus: Important to observe: (a) Elisions are indicated by the apostrophe § 40) and need give no further concern. (b) When, at the beginning of a word, a breathing is written over the Hiatus (Latin for ‘gaping’) occurs when a word ending in a vowel immediately precedes another which begins with a vowel. It may be avoided, of course, by elision, as 1. If the first of the two words ends in a long vowel or a diphthong which is regarded and used as a short syllable. This shortening of a final long vowel or diphthong in the arsis, before an initial vowel of the following word, is very common. E. g. A 14, A 15, a. Final 2. If the first word ends in 3. If the first word is followed by a natural pause ( § 16, § 19, 20). E. g. (a) Feminine caesura of third foot: A 27, (b) Masculine caesura of third foot: A 114, (c) Bucolic diaeresis: B 3, (d) Diaeresis after first foot: I 247, After the formula 4. If the first word ends with the thesis of a foot, even when no natural pause occurs at that point. E. g. Hiatus is not regarded when elision has already taken place. E. g. A 2, Hiatus seems to occur in some places where it really did not exist in the original words of the poet. This is because he or his predecessors pronounced an initial letter, usually digamma ( A 7, In accordance with the principle of § 25.1, even a long vowel or a diphthong within a word is sometimes shortened in the arsis of a foot, before another vowel. E. g. Not infrequently such a vowel or diphthong is written short in the text, if the meter requires it. So two spellings of the same word may be found. E. g. Even before a single consonant, a vowel originally long is sometimes shortened in the arsis. E. g. The vowel thus shortened (cf. § 30) may be written short, giving rise to two spellings of the same word (cf. § 29). E. g. A short final syllable is sometimes used for a long syllable in the thesis of a foot if a metrical pause follows. E. g. A 19, A 153. So too A 226, 244, 527, B 24, 71, Not rarely the ictus itself seems to lengthen a short final syllable, even when no pause follows. E. g. A 45, B 39, B 169. Compare A 342, B 233, etc. Initial syllables of words that could not otherwise be introduced into the hexameter are sometimes lengthened by the ictus. E. g. A 265. The vowel thus lengthened is often written long in the text. E. g. A 2, Compare The initial syllable of the first foot is sometimes lengthened apparently by the ictus alone. E. g. In many instances where a short syllable seems to be used for a long, closer examination shows that it is really long by position. The value of a consonant (especially digamma) often remains, even when the letter itself has disappeared from the text. E. g. A 416. So too Whether the initial consonant of A short final vowel may make a long syllable when the next word begins with a liquid These same consonants § 38) are sometimes found written double, within a word, lengthening a preceding short syllable on which the ictus rests. E. g. A 173, A 7, Final vowels that are superfluous to the meter are elided before words beginning with a vowel, in the following instances, and the elision is marked by an apostrophe: 1. 2. 3. 4. Very many forms that would be contracted in Attic Greek are found uncontracted in the text of Homer. E. g. A 1, Besides the familiar contractions of Attic Greek, the MSS. show a peculiar one: Allied to contraction is Synizesis (Greek Crasis (Greek By Apocope (Greek The suppression of a short vowel within a word is called Syncope (Greek A 13, 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. An etymological reason very often exists for the double consonant, as may be illustrated in the case of double sigma. Double sigma of the following words results from the retention of a final sigma of the stem: A 42, On the analogy of verbs like Double sigma of the following words arises from the assimilation of a lingual mute to the following sigma: A 368, Many of these words (§ § 52-54) have epic forms with one sigma also. Many double sigma forms in Homer are familiar as double tau forms in Xenophon: A 34, In some words, before A 124, Some words containing The letter digamma, Full lists of words that once were spelled with digamma, with or without other lost consonants, may be found in large grammars and lexicons. The following illustrative list is selected from instances in A and B; the words are grouped in order of roots or stems: Traces of digamma, not initial, appear in: 1. 2. A vocalized digamma appears in some words. E. g. 1. A 459, 2. E 289, X 267, etc., 3. A 356, etc., 4. I 273, In place of the Attic Endings of the First Declension, Nouns and Adjectives (distinctively Homeric endings in bold type):ἠχή, τευχεύσῃ
.νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὦρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λα_οί
, the final syllable of ἀνά
and the penult of ὀλέκοντο
are long by “position.”πτερόεντα
is not lengthened in the often repeated line, A 201, etc., καί μιν φωνήσα_ς ἔπεα πτερόεντα προσηύδα_
. Cf. σχετλίη
, of which the first syllable is short.-uu
or --
; or in musical notation, if a long syllable be represented by a quarter note, one quarter and two eighths, or two quarters.θέσις
, a ‘setting down,’ as of the foot in marching); the rest of the foot —either one long syllable or two short syllables—the arsis (Greek ἄρσις
, a ‘lifting,’ as of the foot in marching).ἔπος
) is called dactylic hexameter; sometimes, from its subject, heroic hexameter.διαίρεσις
, ‘division’).Λ
denotes a rest equivalent to one short syllable.γάρ, δέ, ἄρα
, etc.), or after proclitics.ψυχα?ς
) and A 7 (after ἀνδρῶν
).μάντι κακῶν, οὔ πώ ποτέ μοι τὸ κρήγυον εἶπας
, or ἀλλʼ ἴθι μή μʼ ἐρέθιζε σαώτερος ὥς κε νέηαι.
, or Ἄρεϊ δὲ ζώνην, στέρνον δὲ Ποσειδάωνι
, -εω
pronounced as one syllable see § 43.)
The caesura of line 46 is slight; observe the bucolic diaeresis. For long -οι
of third foot see § 25.1.ὀ ι στοί
), the vowels are of course pronounced as separate syllables.ἔφατʼ
(ο
) εὐχόμενος
. It is chiefly found under the following conditions:ἑκηβόλου?̓́Απόλλοωνος
χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ …
(-εῳ
is pronounced as one syllable; cf. § 43).οὔτί μοι αἴτίη ἐσσί· θεοί νύ μοι αἴτιοί εἰσιν
-αι
and -οι
, though short in determining word accent, are metrically long except under the condition just noted.-ι
(dative singular of third declension) or -υ
. E. g. B 6, Ἀγαμεμνονι οὖλον. Ω
387, σύ ἐσσι
. But many such instances (e. g. A 393) must be referred to § 25.3.ἢ νῦν δηθυ?νοντα?ͅ ἢ ὕστερον αὖτις ἰόντα
.κουριδίης ἀλόχου,?ͅ ἐπεὶ οὔ ἑθέν ἐστι χερείων
.ἀλλʼ ὅ γε μερμήριζε κατὰ φρένα?ͅ ὡς Ἀχιλῆα
.ἀλλʼ ἄνα?ͅ εἰ μέμονάς γε κτλ.
μυ_ρἴ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγἐ ἔθηκεν
.ϝ
), which later disappeared (cf. § 61). E. g.Ἀτρεΐδης τε ϝάναξ κτλ.
νέας
(A 487), νῆας
(A 12). ὑός
(A 489), υἱός
(A 9). Ἄρεος
(T 47), Ἄρηος
(B 110). ὠκέα
(B 786) for ὠκεῖα. ἕαται
(ἥατʼ
(αι
) (B 137). Πηλέος
(Πηλῆος
(I 147). ὀλοῇς
(X 65), ὀλοιῇσι
(A 342). κέατʼ
(ο
) (κείατο
(Ἀπόλλων
μέν, μήν
(and μα?ν
). Similarly ἀτάρ
and αὐτάρ
.δέ
in apodosis”—is equivalent in force to a weakened δή
. Whether the two words are really identical in origin, however, is disputed.οὐλομένην
(Attic ὀλομένην
). A 155, βωτιανείρῃ
(βόσκω
, ‘feed,’ and ἀνήρ
). A 252, ἠγαθέῃ
(α?̓γα-
, ‘very’). B 77, ἠμαθόεντος
(α?̓́μαθος
, ‘sand’). B 89, εἰαρινοῖσιν
(ἔαρ
, ‘spring’). B 448, ἠερέθονται
(α?̓είρω
, ‘raise’). B 460, δουλιχοδείρων
(δολιχός
, ‘long’).εἰν ἀγορῇ
(I 13) for ἐν ἀγορῇ
.διά
. X 379, ἐπεί
.ὡς
, ‘like,’ was ϝ
or ἐπέσσυται
. A 278, ἔμμορε
. A 420, ἀγάννιφον
for ἀγά-σνιφον
. B 170, ἐυσσέλμοιο
. B 452, ἄλληκτον. Γ
34, ἔλλαβε
. T 35, ἀπο
[ϝϝ
]ειπών
.Ἀχιλλεύς
, but A 1, Ἀχιλῆος
. A 145, Ὀδυσσεύς
, but A 138, Ὀδυσῆος
. The longer spellings of the last two words may be original.
μυ_ρἴ
(α
), ἄλγἐ
(α
) (= Attic ἄλγη
). A 23, θʼ
=τε
. A 32, μ̓
(ε
). A 33, ἔφατʼ
(ο
). A 52, βάλλ̓
(ε
) = ἔβαλλε
.εἰῶς̓
(ι
). Except the final -ι
of περί, τί
and its compunds: ὅ τι
. E. g. A 244, ὅ τʼ
(ε
). Cf. § 123.7.βούλοὐ
(αι
). A 546, ἔσοντʼ
(αι
). B 137, ἥατʼ
(αι
).ς̓
(οι
). Perhaps καί τʼ
(οι
). I 673, μ̓
(οι
). The context proves that the dative of the pronoun is intended in the first and third examples.ἄειδε
(= Attic ᾆδε
). A 8, ξυν-έηκε
(= Attic συν-ῆκε
, from συν-ι?ημι
). A 30, Ἄργεϊ
. A 49, ἀργυρέοιο
(= ἀργυροῦ
). A 76, ἐρέω
(= ἐρῶ
).ευ
for εο
. E. g. A 37, μευ
(Attic μου
). I 54, ἔπλευ
(for ἔπλεο
).συνίζησις
, ‘settling together’). This occurs when two neighboring vowels, regularly pronounced separately, must be pronounced as one syllable, to suit the meter. E. g. A 1, -εω
(of Πηληιάδεω
) must be pronounced as one syllable (but cf. § 68). So too A 15, -έῳ
(of χρυ_σέῳ
). A 18, θεοί
. A 131, δὴ οὕτως
. A 340, δὴ αὖτε
. A 540, δὴ αὖ
. For the last three examples the MSS. read, respectively, δʼ οὕτως, δʼ αὖτε, δʼ αὖ
, readings which perhaps had better be retained, if δʼ
=δέ
=δή
§ 31).κρᾶσις
, ‘mingling’) occurs when a final vowel or diphthong is contracted with a vowel which begins the next word. In Homer as now written it is rare. E. g. A 465, τἆλλα
(= τὰ ἄλλα
). B 238, χἠμεῖς
(= καὶ ἡμεῖς
). Z 260, καὐτός
(=καὶ αὐτός
). T 413, ὤριστος
(= ὁ ἄριστος
).τοὔνεκα
(A 96, etc.) for τοῦ ἕνεκα
is regarded by some editors as an example of crasis; by others it is written τούνεκα
, as if for τοῦ?̓νεκα
(ἕνεκα
) juxtaposed. So οὕνεκα
(A 11, etc.) is explained both ways.ἀποκοπή
, ‘cutting off’) is denoted the loss of a final vowel before a word beginning with a consonant. No apostrophe marks the omission. The chief Homeric instances are ἄν, κάτ, πάρ
, and ἄρ
(for ἀνά, κατά, παρά
, and ἄρα
). E. g. A 143, ἄν
. A 8, ἄρ
.ἄν
and κάτ
suffer euphonic changes before certain consonants. E. g. ἂμ πόνον
. B 160, κὰδ δέ. Π
106, κὰπ φάλαῤ
(α
). κὰκ κεφαλῆς
. In composition: E 343, κάβ-βαλεν
.συγκοπή
, ‘cutting short’). E. g.θύγατρα
for θυγατέρα
. A 202, τίπτʼ
(ε
) for τί ποτε
. A 275, ἀποαίρεο
for ἀποαιρέεο
.ἄρʼ , ἄρ, ῥα, ῥʼ
), ‘as may be believed,’ ‘of course,’ ‘as it seems,’ ‘so,’ ‘then,’ etc.νῦν
also.ἄν
(cf. § § 189 ff.).ὁππότε, ὅππως, ὁππότερος
, etc. ὁπότε
and ὅπως
also occur, as in Attic.ὅτ
(τ
)ι
.τός
(ς
)ος, ὅς
(ς
)ος, μές
(ς
)ος
, and other words.βέλεσ-σιν
. A 82, τελέσ-σῃ
. A 83, στήθεσ-σιν
.τελέσ-σῃ
(the stem τελεσ-
appears in the noun τέλος
), although without a similar etymological reason, are formed futures and aorists such as: A 153, μαχεσσόμενος
. A 54, καλέσσατο
. A 76, ὄμοσσον
. A 100, ἱλασσάμενοι
.δάσσαντο
(δατ-σαντο
). A 537, συμφράσσατο
(συν-φραδ-σατο
). B 44, ποσσί
(ποδ-σι
).θαλάσσης
. A 80, κρείσσων
. A 483, διαπρήσσουσα
, Attic διαπρα?ττουσα
. B 51, κηρυ?σσειν
. B 87, μελισσα?ων
, Attic μελιττῶν
. B 440, θᾶσσον
.ἴδμεν
, Attic ἴσμεν
. B 341, ἐπέπιθμεν
.κρατερόν
, A 178, καρτερός
. A 225, κραδίην
, B 452, καρδίῃ
.τερπικέραυνος
(A 419, etc.) is probably in its first part derived from τρέπω
(by metathesis) and means ‘hurler of the thunderbolt.’ϝ
, which belonged originally to most—if not all—Greek alphabets, means literally double gamma, from its form ϝ
. Its value was that of the English
ἐ
)ϝάνδανε, ἥνδανε
(A 24), ϝηδύ
(B 270). The original spelling was σϝαδ-
: cf. Lat. ϝάλις
(B 90).ϝάναξ
(A 7), ϝανάσσεις
(A 38).ϝάστυ
(B 803). Cf. Lat. ϝιϝάχω
: ϝηχήεσσα
(A 157).ϝε
(A 406), ϝοι
(A 104), ϝεθεν
(A 114), etc., pronoun of third person; ϝῇσιν
(A 333), etc., from ϝός
, possessive pronoun of third person; also ἑϝοῖσι
(A 83), etc., from ἑϝός
. There were original forms in σϝ-
: cf. Lat. ϝειαρινῇ
(B 471) for ϝεαρινῇ. ϝέαρ
=Lat. ϝέθνεα
(B 87).ϝείκοσι
(B 748), ἐϝείκοσιν
(A 309), Lat. ϝέκαθεν
: ϝεκα-
τηβελέτα_ο
(A 75), etc.ϝέκαστα
(A 550).ϝεκών
: ἀ-ϝέκοντος
(A 301).ϝέλπομαι
: ἐπι-ϝέλπεο
(A 545), ἐϝέλδωρ
(A 41). Cf. Lat. ϝείλω
: ϝέλσαι
(A 409).ϝελίσσω
: ϝελικώπιδα
(A 98), ἀμφι-ϝελίσσα_ς
(B 165).ϝειπέ
(A 85), προσέϝειπεν
(A 105), ϝέπος
(A 108). Cf. Lat. ϝείρω
: ϝερέω
(A 204). Cf. Lat. ϝέργα
(A 115). Cf. Eng. ‘work.’ϝερυσσάμενος
(A 190).ϝέννυ_μι
: ἐπι-ϝειμένε
(A 149), ϝείματα
(B 261) for ϝεσ-ματα
. Cf. Lat. ϝῖφι
(A 38). Cf. Lat. ϝι?εμαι
, ‘be eager,’ ‘press on’; ϝι_εμένων
(B 154), not to be confused with forms of ἵημι
.ϝιδών
(A 148). ϝοῖσθα
(A 85), ϝίδμεν
(A 124), ϝιδυίῃ
(A 365). ϝείσαιτο
(B 215), ἐϝεισάμενος
(B 22). Cf. Lat. ϝέϝοικεν
(A 119), ϝεϝοικώς
(A 47), (ἐ
)ϝεϝίκτην
(A 104), and various compounds (A 97, 131, 547).ϝι?λιον
(B 216).ϝῖρις
(B 786).ϝῖσον
(A 163), ἐϝίσα_ς
(A 306).ϝοίκῳ
(A 30), ϝοῖκόνδε
(A 606). Cf. Lat. ϝοῖνον
(A 462), ϝοίνοπα
(A 350). Cf. Lat. δείδιε
(δέδϝιε. δείδοικα
(A 555), for δέδϝοικα. ἔδδεισεν
(A 33), for ἔδϝεισεν.—δειδίσσεσθαι
(B 190), for δεδϝίσσεσθαι.—δϝέος
(A 515).—δϝεινός
(δϝήν
(A 416), δϝηρόν
(I 415).ἄν
(‘up’) plus (ἐ
)ϝέρυσαν
(‘drew’); by assimilation of ν
to ϝ, ἀϝϝέρυσαν
.ταλα-
(root ταλ
), ‘endure,’ and ῥι_νός
(stem ϝρι_νο-
), ‘ox-hide shield.’ἀποϝρα?ς
, aorist participle of which the present does not occur; future, X 489, ἀπουρήσουσιν
, originally αποϝρήσουσιν
.ἀπέϝρα_
, second aorist indicative (of which ἀποϝρα?ς
was the participle). The original form was misunderstood by the later poets of the Homeric age, who regarded it as imperfect of a supposed present, ἀπ-αυράω
. So arose the misformation ἀπηύρων
, A 430 (third plural) and I 131 (first singular).η
) is commonly found in Homer. E. g. A 45, φαρέτρην
, Attic φαρέτρα_ν
. A 54, ἀγορήνδε
, Attic εἰς ἀγορα?ν
. A 562, πρῆξαι
, Attic πρᾶξαι
.
-ης
-η, -α
-ης
-ῃ
-ῃ
-ην
-ην, -αν
-α, η
-η, -α
-α_
-αι
-α?ων, -έων, -ῶν
-α_ς
One frequent feminine noun ends in θεα?, θεᾶς
, Attic ἡ θεός
. A few proper names also have nominatives in Ἑρμεία_ς
. Such nouns of course have datives in -ᾳ
and accusatives in -α_ν
.
A few masculine nouns end in μητίετα^
. A 511, νεφεληγερέτα^
. B 107, Θυέστʼ
(α^
).
The genitive ending Πηληϊάδα? Ἀχιλῆος
.
A contracted genitive ending -ω
is sometimes found. E. g. Z 449, ἐυμμελίω
.
The genitive plural ending -ῶν
). E. g. A 273, βουλέων
. A 495, ἐφετμέων
.
In the dative plural the longer ending is by far the more common. αἰδοίῃσʼ ἀλόχοισι
, not αἰδοίῃς κτλ.
A few datives end in -αις
. E. g. A 238, παλάμαις
.
Endings of the Second Declension, Nouns and Adjectives (distinctively Homeric endings in bold type):
-ος
-ον
-ου
-ου
-ῳ
-ῳ
-ον
-ον
-ε
-ον
-ω
-οι
-α
-ων
-ων
-οις
-οις
-ους
-α
The genitive ending -οιο
( § 28, § 29), is restored to the text in some instances by modern editors. E. g. B 325, ὅο
(Attic οὗ
). Z 344, κακομηχάνοο
. I 64, ἐπιδημίοο
.
For vocatives in -ος
cf. § 169.
The dative plural ending -οις
. The latter is, in many instances, only the elided form of -οισι
and might be so written. E. g. A 307, οἷσʼ ἑτάροισιν
might be written for οἷς κτλ.
In epic are found the regular λα_ός
(A 10, λα_οί
), νηός
(A 39, νηόν
), ι?λα_ος
(A 583), etc., for which Attic Greek has λεώς, νεώς, ι?λεως
.
Endings of the Third Declension, Nouns and Adjectives (distinctively Homeric endings in bold type):
-ς
, ---ος
-ος
-ι
-ι
-α, -ν
-ς,
---ε
-ες
-α
-ων
-ων
-σι
(ν
)-σι
(ν
)-ας
, -[ν
]ς
-α
The accusative singular of consonant stems regularly ends in φρήν
(φρεν-
), φρένα
(A 193), φρένας
(A 115).
Barytones in -ιν
and -υν
, agreeing with the familiar exception of Attic Greek (GG. 115). E. g. ἔρις
(ἐριδ-
) has ἔριδα
(ἔριν
(κόρυς
has κόρυθα
(κόρυν
(χάρις
has χάριν
only.
The accusative singular of vowel stems regularly ends in πόλις
(πολι-
), πόλιν
(A 19), πόλι_ς
for πολι-νς
(accusative plural, restored in B 648, I 328, etc.). πόλιας
too occurs § 103). ἦνις
(ἠνι-
) has accusative plural ἤνι_ς
(Z 94, 275, 309).
The two endings of the dative plural often occur in the same word. E. g. κύων
(κυν-
) has κύν-εσσιν
(A 4), and κυ-σίν
for κυν-σιν
(
Some datives plural occur in three forms. E. g. πούς
(ποδ-
) has πόδ-εσσιν
(ποσ-σί
(B 44; cf. § 54), and by loss of δ
the Attic ποσί
(Z 505). βέλος
(βελεσ-
) has βελέεσσιν
(O 727), βέλεσ-σιν
(A 42; cf. § 52), and by loss of one ς
the Attic βέλεσιν
(
The unusual suffixes -σσι
and -εσι
are seen in some rare forms of the dative plural.
The so-called syncopated nouns of Attic Greek, μήτηρ, πατήρ, θυγάτηρ, ἀνήρ
, etc., are sometimes syncopated in epic, sometimes not. E. g. θύγατρα
(A 13), θυ_γατέρα
(E 371). ἄνδρας
(B 362), α?νέρας
(A 262).
A few selected paradigms are added for illustration (§ § 86-95).
βασιλεύς
βασιλῆες
βασιλῆος
βασιλήων
βασιλῆι
βασιλεῦσι
(ν
)βασιλῆα
βασιλῆας
βασιλεῦ
]
Simtlarly are inflected Ἀχιλ
(λ
)εύς
, ‘Achilles,’ ἱερεύς
, ‘priest,’ [οὐρεύς
], ‘mule,’ etc.
[ἀριστεύς
], ‘chief,’ has dative plural ἀριστήεσσι
(ν
) (A 227, etc.).
The stems of βασιλεύς
, etc., originally ended in -ηϝ
.
Proper names in -ευς
may have ε
for η
before the case endings. E. g.
Ἀτρεύς, Ἀτρέος, Ἀτρέι
, [Ἀτρέα
], Καινέα
(A 264), Θησέα
(A 265).
τὸ ἔπος
ἐπεσ-
, is typical of the large number of third declension neuters in -ος
ἔπος
ἔπεα
ἔπεος
]ἐπέων
ἔπεϊ, ἔπει
ἐπέεσσι
(ν
), ἔπεσσι
(ν
),ἔπεσι
(ν
)
Note that final ς
of the stem is dropped before endings beginning with a vowel.
N. ἠώς
(ἡ
), ‘dawn’
G. ἠόος, ἠοῦς
D. ἠόι, ἠοῖ
A. ἠόα, ἠῶ
The Attic word for ‘dawn,’ of the second declension, is inflected, ἕως, ἕω, ἕῳ, ἕω
.
N. Λητώ
(ἡ
), ‘Leto’
G. Λητόος, Λητοῦς
D. Λητόι, Λητοῖ
A. Λητόα, Λητώ
V. Λητοῖ
The MSS. regularly have the contracted forms of ἠώς, Λητώ
and similar words.
First declension, N. Ἀίδης
(Attic Ἅιδης
, i. e. ᾄδης
), ‘Hades’
G. Ἀίδα_ο, Ἀίδεω
D. Ἀίδῃ
A. Ἀίδην
Third declension, N. — (stem Ἀιδ-
)
G. Ἄϊδος
D. Ἄϊδι
The initial vowel of Ἄϊδος
is long in the verse ending Ἄϊδος εἴσω
.
γόνυ
, ‘knee,’ and δόρυ
, ‘spear,’ have as stems γονϝ-
and δορϝ-
. In the nominative singular the digamma is vocalized § 60), and as the nouns are neuter, there is no case ending. Longer forms of the stems are γονϝ-ατ-
and δορϝ-ατ-
. The loss of digamma produces compensatory lengthening of the stem in the different cases, as follows:
γόνυ
δόρυ
γουνός, γούνατος
δουρός, δούρατος
δουρί, δούρατι
δοῦρε
γοῦνα, γούνατα
δοῦρα, δούρατα
γούνων
δούρων
γούνεσσι
(ν
), γούνασι
(ν
)δούρεσσι, δούρασι
(ν
)
For Διόθεν
cf. § 155.2.
ἠύς
or ἐύς
, adjective meaning ‘good,’ ‘valiant,’ has genitive singular ἐῆος
(A 393), accusative singular ἠύν
and ἐύν
, genitive plural ἐα?ων
(ἠύ
or ἐύ
. The latter form, which is sometimes contracted (εὖ
), is used as an adverb.
κάρη
(τό
), ‘head.’ has stem
Also κρᾶτα
(
From the same root come κάρ
(ἐπὶ κάρ
, ‘headlong,’ κρῆθεν
(
νηυ-
νηῦς
νῆες, νέες
νηός, νεός
νηῶν, νεῶν
νηί
νήεσσι
(ν
), νέεσσι
(ν
), νηυσί
(ν
)νῆα
(νέα
?)νῆας, νέας
Also ναῦφι
(ν
), § 155.1.
Πάτροκλος
, ‘Patroclus,’ is declined from two stems:
Πάτροκλος
Πατροκλεεσ-
)Πατρόκλοιο, Πατρόκλου
Πατροκλέεος, Πατροκλῆος
Πατρόκλῳ
Πατροκλέεϊ
]Πάτροκλον
Πατροκλέεα, Πατροκλῆα
Πάτροκλε
Πατρόκλεες, Πατρόκλεις
The MSS. have the contracted forms.
πόλις
πόλιες
πόληες
πόλιος
πόληος
πολίων
πόλει
; see noteπόληι
πολίεσσι
(ν
)πόλιν
πόλι_ς
(MSS. πόλεις
), πόλιας
πόληας
Note on the dative singular: For πόλιι
(or πόλἰ
), which would be expected in the dative singular, the MSS. regularly have πόλει
(familiar in Attic Greek). Yet datives in -ι
occur in a few other similar words, e. g. ἐν κόνι ἐκτανύσα_ς
i. e. κόνἰ
(ι
). Cf. Θέτι_
(Θέτιι
.
Forms in πτ-
are:
πτόλις
,πτόλιος
,πτόλεϊ
,πτόλιν
.
πολύς
, ‘much,’ ‘many,’ has a form πολλός
(stem πολλο-
for πολϝο-
) declined regularly as follows:
πολλός
πολλή
πολλόν
πολλῆς
πολλῷ
πολλῇ
πολλῷ
πολλόν
πολλήν
πολλόν
πολλοί
πολλαί
πολλά
πολλῶν
πολλα?ων, πολλέων
πολλῶν
πολλοῖσι
(ν
)πολλῇσι
(ν
), πολλῇς
πολλοῖσι
(ν
), πολλοῖς
πολλούς
πολλα?ς
πολλά
Of the stem πολυ-
(πολϝ-
) the declension is as follows (cf. § 105):
πολύς
πολύ
πολέος
πολέος
πολύν
πολύ
πολέες, πολεῖς
πολέων
πολέεσσι
(ν
), πολέσι
(ν
)πολέεσσι
(ν
)πολέας
1. A dative plural πολέσσι
(ν
) of unusual formation (§ 84) occurs rarely.
2. In some instances the MSS. have πουλύς
(= πολλός
), πουλύν
(= πολλόν
and even πολλήν
), πουλύ
(= πολλόν
, neuter).
υἱός
, ‘son,’ is declined from three stems:
υἱο-
υἱυ-
υἱ-
υἱός
υἱοῦ
υἱέος
υἷος
υἱέι
(and υἱεῖ
?)υἷι
υἱόν
υἱέα
υἷα
υἱέ
υἷε
υἱέες, υἱεῖς
υἷες
υἱῶν
υἱοῖσι
(ν
)υἱάσι
(ν
)υἱέας
υἷας
υἱεῖς
1. Some editors (as Cauer) substitute ὑός
, etc., for MS. υἱός
, etc., where the penult is short, e. g. A 489.
The following numerals only need special mention:
1.
εἷς
μία, ἴα
ἑνός
μιῆς, ἰῆς
ἑνί
ἰῇ
ἑνί, ἰῷ
ἕνα
μίαν, ἴαν
ἕν
2. δύω, δύο
(Attic). δοιώ, δοιοί, δοιαί, δοιά
, etc.; I 230, ἐν δοιῇ
.
4. πίσυρες, πίσυρας
, as well as the familiar τέσσαρες
, etc.
5. πέντε
and in the compound πεμπώβολα
(A 463), πέμπε
.
μυ_ρίοι
(note the accent), not μυ?ριοι
, is found in Homer: ‘countless.’
Forms found in Homer:
ἐγώ
(ν
)σύ, τυ?νη
σφωε
(acc. only)σφωιν
(dat. only)ἡμῖν, ἧμιν, ἄμμι
(ν
)υ?μῖν, ὔμμι
(ν
)σφίσι
(ν
), σφι
(ν
)ἡμέας, ἧμας
(once),ἄμμε
1. Pronouns that are always enclitic according to Homeric usage are left unaccented in the table, § 110.
2. Pronouns that are often or sometimes enclitic are: σέο, σεῦ, σέ, ἕο, ἕθεν, εὗ, οἷ, ἕ, σφέων, σφίσι
(ν
), σφέας
.
3. Forms of the second person retain their accent if emphatic; but τοι
is always enclitic.
4. Forms of the third person retain their accent when used reflexively.
The personal pronouns may be used reflexively, and then they sometimes have forms of αὐτός
in agreement; but the two words are always separate. E. g. A 271, ἔμʼ αὐτόν
(Attic ἐμαυτόν
).
Possessive pronouns are ἐμός
, ‘my’; τεός
or σός
, ‘your’ (singular); ἑός
or ὅς
, ‘his own,’ ‘her own’; νωΐτερος
, ‘of us two’; σφωΐτερος
, ‘of you two’; α?μός
or ἡμέτερος
, ‘our’; υ?μός
or υ?μέτερος
, ‘your’ (plural); σφός
or σφέτερος
, ‘their own.’
φίλος
, ‘dear,’ has the force of ‘own’ in many places; e. g. A 569, B 261,
The following forms appear:
The adverb is τώς
or ὥς
, ‘thus’; this is accented by many editors τῶς, ὧς
.
The dative τῷ
may be used causally, at the beginning of a sentence, meaning ‘therefore,’ ‘then.’
ὅ, ἥ, οἵ, αἵ
). E. g.
1. Demonstrative use: λεύσσετε γὰρ τό γε πάντες
οὔ τις τῶν, οἳ νῦν βροτοί εἰσιν
τά τʼ ἄποινα
2. Used substantively, the demonstrative is often not to be distinguished from a personal pronoun. E. g. ὃ γάρ
τὴν δʼ ἐγὼ οὐ λυ?σω
τοῦ δʼ ἔκλυε Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων
τῷ
3. A noun is sometimes added, in apposition. E. g. ἣ δʼ ἀέκουσʼ ἅμα τοῖσι γυνὴ κίεν
4. Relative use: τόν
= Attic ὅν
, ‘whom.’ τήν
= Attic ἥν
, ‘which’ (prophecy). τὰ ... τά
= Attic ἂ ... ταῦτα
. τοῦ
= Attic οὗ
. ὅ
= Attic ὅς
.
Sometimes τά τʼ ἐόντα
, ‘the present.’ τὰ πρῶτα
(cf. τὸ πρῶτον
). ὁ γέρων
shows the ‘generic’ use of the word; so too ὅ τʼ ἀεργὸς ἀνήρ
.
(a) Suspiciously like the Attic use are ὁ γέρων
, ὁ γεραιός
, etc.
(b) Observe that in this use the forms that are proclitic in Attic are left unaccented in this text.
Besides ὅ, ἥ, τό
, Homeric demonstratives are ἐκεῖνος
. E. g. A 234, ναὶ μὰ τόδε σκῆπτρον
, ‘verily, by this scepter,’ that I hold (λοίγια ἔργα τάδʼ ἔσσεται
, ‘sorry doings these here [where I am] will be’; ‘there will be sorry doings here.’ For κεῖνοι
(=
τούτω δʼ οὔτʼ ἂρ νῦν φρένες ἔμπεδοι οὔτʼ ἄρʼ ὀπίσσω ἔσσονται
σὺ μὲν οὐκέτʼ ἐμοὶ φίλα ταῦτʼ ἀγορεύεις
, ‘this speech of yours [with a tone of contempt] no longer pleases me.’
In most cases the interrogative
1. Special Homeric forms of the interrogative (equivalent Attic forms in parenthesis):
τέο, τεῦ
(τοῦ, τίνος
)τέων
(τίνων
)τοῖσιν
? (τίσιν
)
2. Of the indefinite:
τεο, τευ
(του, τινός
)τεῳ
(τῳ, τινί
)ἄσσα
(ἄττα, τινά
)
The inflection of
1. For
2. ἧς
is read in the MSS. in
3. ᾧ τε
. A 238, οἵ τε
.
4. ὅς ῥα
, ‘then he.’
5. The cognate adverb is κακὸν ὥς
. Cf. § 37.
6. Homer uses ὥς τε
(always two words) in the sense of ‘as’ and ‘like.’
7. The neuter ὅτι
(ὅττι
). E. g. A 120, ὅ
, ‘that.’ A 244, ὅ τʼ
(ε
), ‘because.’ see § 40.2.
Besides Attic forms of
ὅτις
(Attic ὅστις
)ὅττι
(ὅ τι
)ὅττεο, ὅττευ, ὅτευ
(ὅτου, οὗτινος
)ὅτεῳ
(ὅτῳ, ᾧτινι
)ὅτινα
(ὅντινα
)ὅττι
(ὅ τι
)ἅσσα, ὅτινα
(ἅττα, ἅτινα
)ὅτεων
(ὅτων, ὧντινων
)ὁτέοισι
(ν
) (ὅτοις, οἷστισι
)ὅτινας
(οὕστινας
)ἅσσα
(ἅττα
)
The syllabic and temporal augments are often omitted. E. g. A 4, τεῦχε
. A 6, διαστήτην
(= δι-εστήτην
). A 10, ὀλέκοντο
(= Attic ὤλλυντο
). A 56, ὁρᾶτο
(= ἑώρα_
).
Monosyllabic verbs that lack the augment are circumflexed. E. g. A 34, βῆ
.
The so-called Attic reduplication is commoner in Homer than in later Greek: E. g. B 218, συνοχωκότε
(better συνοκωχότε
) from συν-έχω
. B 799, ὄπωπα
, from ὀπ-
; see ὁράω
.
The reduplicated second aorist, of which the Attic ἤγαγον
is also an example, is very common in Homer. E. g. A 100, πεπίθοιμεν
, from πείθω
. A 256, κεχαροίατο
, from χαίρω
.
Two verbs, ἐνίπτω
, ‘rebuke,’ and ἐρυ?κω
, ‘restrain,’ reduplicate their second aorist stems at the end (instead of at the beginning) by repeating the final consonant preceded by α
: ἠνι?παπε, ἠρυ?κακε
.
In some tenses of both ο
/ε
or ω
/η
are said to be of the non-thematic inflection. E. g.
Thematic: λυ_-σό-μενος, δέχ-ε-σθαι, ἄγειν
(ἀγε
+ εν
), ἕλ-ω-μαι
.
Non-thematic: λέλυ-ται, ἱστά-μενος, ἔστη, ἐλυ?-σα-ο
.
Non-thematic forms are much commoner in Homer than in later Greek. E. g.
A 23, δέχθαι
(second aorist middle infinitive of δέχεσθαι
). T 10, δέξο
(imperative). B 420, δέκτο
(indicative). B 794, δέγμενος
(participle). A 532, ἄλτο
(second aorist of ἅλλομαι
). B 107, φορῆναι
(present active infinitive of φορέω
). I 171, φέρτε
(imperative of φέρω
). X 265, φιλήμεναι
(present active infinitive of φιλέω
).
On the other hand, some forms that are nonthematic in Attic belong to the thematic inflection in Homer. E. g. I 164, διδοῖς
for διδό-εις
(Attic δίδως
). O 613, ἐπώρνυ-ε
. Compare Z 523, μεθιεῖς
for μεθ-ιέ-εις
(the Attic has both ι?ης
and ι?εῖς
).
Especially noteworthy endings, which are further explained in § 13, are printed in bolder type.
Primary Tenses of the Indicative and All Subjunctive Tenses:
-σι, -ς, -σθα
-τον
-τον
-μεν
-τε
ν
]σι
(ν
), -α_σι
(ν
)
In the singular and in the third person plural the verb exhibits a variety of endings, already familiar from Attic Greek, when the personal ending proper either (a) is wanting, e. g. λυ?σω
(A 29), τέτηκα
(δώσουσι
(A 123) for δω-σο-νσι, ἐκ-πέρσωσι
(A 164) for ἐκ-περ-σω-νσι, τεθαρσήκα_σι
(I 420) for τεθαρση-κα-νσι
.
The personal ending -α_σι
, which is distinct from the verb ending just illustrated, is seen in such forms as ἐγγεγάα_σιν
(Z 493), perfect of ἐγγίγνομαι
, and βεβάα_σι
(B 134), perfect of βαίνω. -α^σιν
occurs twice (
-σα_σι
is seen in ἴσα_σι
(I 36) for ἰδ-σασι
, from οῖδα
.
Secondary Tenses of the Indicative and All Optative Tenses:
-ν, -μι
in optative-ς, -σθα
-τον
-την
(-τον
, three times)-μεν
-τε
See also the note to section 133.
Imperative:
-τω
-τον
-των
-τε
-ντων
(except ἔστων
)
See also the note to section 133.
1. -μι
verbs and to the optative, but also to some subjunctives. E. g. A 549, ἐθέλωμι
(= Attic ἐθέλω
). ἀγάγωμι
(=ἀγάγω
).
2. ἐσσί
(A 176, etc.) only, from εἰμί
. This form and its Homeric equivalent εἰς
(‘thou art’) are enclitic.
3. -θα
) is more common in Homer than in Attic Greek, occurring in the indicative, subjunctive, and optative. E. g. A 85, οἶσθα
(for οἰδ͂θα
or οἰδ-σθα
). A 397, ἔφησθα
. A 554, ἐθέλῃσθα. Ω
619, κλαίοισθα
. The first two forms are Attic also.
4. γηθήσαι
.
5. ἐστί
(ν
) only.
6. -μι
verbs but also in some subjunctives. E. g. A 129, δῷσι
(= Attic δῷ
). A 324, δώῃσιν
(= δῷ
). A 408, ἐθέλῃσιν
(= ἐθέλῃ
). B 366, ἔῃσι
(= ᾖ
). ἐρρι?γῃσι
(second perfect of ῥι_γέω
). I 701, ἴῃσιν
(= ἴῃ
).
7. The imperfect and aorist of the non-thematic inflection sometimes have third persons plural ending in ξύνιεν
(=ξυν-ι?εσαν
). A 391, ἔβαν
(=ἔβησαν
). A 533, ἀνέσταν
(= ἀν-έστησαν
). ἔδυν
(= ἔδυ_σαν
). The vowel before -ν
is short.
8. The third person plural aorist (first and second) passive sometimes ends in ἤγερθεν
(= ἠγέρθησαν
, from ἀγείρω
). A 200, φάανθεν
(= ἐφαένθησαν
, Attic ἐφάνθησαν
). A 251, τράφεν
(= ἐτράφησαν
). A 531, διέτμαγεν
(from δια-τμήγω
).
9. ὄρνυθι
(present of ὄρνυ_μι
). A 37, κλῦθι
(second aorist of [κλύω
]). A 586, τέτλαθι
(perfect of aorist ἔτλην
).
10. The pluperfect has ᾔδεα
(from οἶδα
). ᾔδεεν
. A 70, ᾔδει
. A second person singular ἠείδης
(from οἶδα
) occurs in X 280. ᾔδησθα
, the Attic, is found once in the Odyssey (
§ 137. Active Infinitive Endings, including Aorist Passive:
1. a. -έμεναι
and -ειν
occur in the thematic inflection. E. g. A 151, ἐλθέμεναι
(= ἐλθεῖν
). A 277, ἐριζέμεναι
(= ἐρίζειν
). A 60, ἀπονοστήσειν
.
b. -μεναι
is found in the non-thematic inflection. E. g. A 98, δόμεναι
(= Attic δοῦναι
). A 187, ὁμοιωθήμεναι
(= ὁμοιωθῆναι
, aorist passive).
2. -έμενʼ , -μεν̓
) E. g. A 78, χολωσέμεν
(or χολωσέμεν̓
). A 323, ἀγέμεν
(ἄγειν
) A 283, μεθέμεν
(Attic μεθ-εῖναι
), second aorist of μεθίημι
.
3. ἀποδοῦναι
. A 226, θωρηχθῆναι
(aorist passive). See 7, below.
4. A wrongly formed ending βαλέειν
(= βαλεῖν
). ἰδέειν
(= ἰδεῖν
).
5. ἐκπέρσαι
. A 67, ἀμῦναι
. H 261, κτεῖναι
.
6. The forms of the present infinitive of εἰμί
are: ἔμμεναι
(for ἐσ-μεναι
), ἔμεναι, ἔμμεν, ἔμεν, εἶναι
.
7. The infinitives of εἶμι
are: ἴμεναι, ἴμεν, ἰέναι
(the only in finitive in -έναι
).
Especially noteworthy endings, which are further explained in § 142, are printed in bolder type.
Primary Tenses of the Indicative and All Subjunctive Tenses:
-μαι
-ται
-σθον
-σθον
-μεσθα, -μεθα
-σθε
-νται, -αται
§ 139. Secondary Tenses of the Indicative and All Optative Tenses:
-μην
-το
-σθον
-σθην
-μεσθα, -μεθα
-σθε
-ντο, -ατο
§ 140. Imperative:
-σθω
-σθον
-σθων
-σθε
-σθων
For the second person singular, see also the note to section 133.
§ 141. Infinitive: -σθαι
1. Sigma of κέλεαι
(present indicative of κέλομαι
). A 401, ὑπελυ?σαο
(first aorist indicative of ὑπο-λύομαι
). A 418, ἔπλεο
(second aorist indicative of πέλομαι
). A 32, νέηαι
(present subjunctive of νέομαι
). A 207, πίθηαι
(second aorist subjunctive of πείθομαι
). A 232, λωβήσαιο
(aorist optative of λωβάομαι
). A 210, ἕλκεο
(present imperative of ἕλκομαι
). Z 229, δύνηαι
(present subjunctive of the -μι
verb, δύναμαι
). δύναιο
(present optative).
a. Examples of contraction: A 203, ἴδῃ
for ἴδηαι
(the equivalent Attic form is the active ἴδῃς
, which is perhaps a better reading). A 160, μετατρέπῃ
for μετατρέπεαι
(possibly this should be written μετατρέπἐ
).
2. In the indicative and imperative of the non-thematic inflection, sigma of δύνασαι
. X 85, ἵστασο
(imperative). κεχόλωσο
(pluperfect). These forms are the same in Attic.
a. But here too sigma is often lost between two vowels. E. g. μάρναο
(imperative) for μάρνασο
(cf. Attic ἵστασο
). A 76, σύνθεο
(imperative) for σύν-θεσο
(Attic συνθοῦ
). ἔσσυο
(second aorist or pluperfect). E 284, βέβληαι
(= βέβλησαι
, perfect). And sigma of -σο
is regularly lost in the first aorist. Cf. ὑπελυ?σαο
(above), and I 645, ἐείσαο
.
3. Examples of μεταφρασόμεσθα
. A 444, ἱλασόμεσθα
.
4. -νται
and -ντο
) are found in the following instances:
a. Added to some themes of the perfect and pluperfect indicative, ending in a vowel. E. g. A 239, εἰρύαται
. A 251, ἐφθιαθʼ
, i. e. ἐφθίατο
. B 90, πεποτήαται. Γ
183, δεδμήατο.
A 657, βεβλήαται. Ξ
28, βεβλήατο
, and I 3, βεβολήατο
(= ἐβέβληντο
).
b. In a few non-thematic presents and imperfects of the indicative, chiefly ἧμαι
and κεῖμαι
. E. g. B 137, ἥατʼ
(αι
)= ἕαται
. I 628, ἕαται
(for ἕ-
instead of ἥ-
see § 29). ἥατο
(= ἧντο
). ῥυ?ατʼ
(ο
) (imperfect).
c. Added to themes of the perfect and pluperfect indicative ending in a consonant; then a smooth or middle mute is regularly changed to the corresponding rough before the ending. The formation is illustrated by Xenophon's ἀντιτετάχαται
(
ἀντιτεταγμένοι εἰσί. E. g. B 25, ἐπιτετράφαται. Π 481, ἔρχαται (ἔργω, ‘hem in’). Cf. ἐρηρέδαται (ἐρείδω). The Attic equivalents are periphrastic forms.
d. -ατο
for -ντο
is regularly found in the optative mood. E. g. A 256, κεχαροίατο
. A 257, πυθοίατο
.
Tenses which in the indicative lack the thematic vowel § 130) use in the subjunctive η
or ω
. This applies to the active endings ι?ομεν
(Attic ἴωμεν
), of which the present indicative is ἴμεν
. A 363, εἴδομεν
(Attic εἰδῶμεν
), of which the second perfect indicative is ἴδμεν
.
This formation is chiefly illustrated by two important classes of verbs.
I. Second aorists of the non-thematic type:
ἔθεμεν
(θείομεν
(A 143)ἀπεθέμην
]ἀποθείομαι
(κατέβημεν
(cf. καταβήομεν
(K 97)ἐδάμητε
] (pass.)δαμήετε
(H 72)
II. First aorists, active and middle:
ἐχώσατο
(A 64)χώσεται
(A 80)ἐρύσσαμεν
(ἐρύσσομεν
(A 141)βήσαμεν
(A 756)βήσομεν
(A 144)ι?λάσσαο
]ἱλάσσεαι
(A 147)ἠγείραμεν
]ἀγείρομεν
(A 142)
The sigmatic aorist subjunctives, χώσεται
, etc., differ in no way from future indicatives, from which they may be distinguished by the context alone. So, too, care must be taken to distinguish aorist subjunctives of liquid verbs, ἀγείρομεν
, etc., from present indicatives with which they may agree in spelling.
It is not impossible to regard some verbs in -σεις, -σει
, and -σουσι
as subjunctives. Ancient inscriptions show that among the Ionians originally the first aorist subjunctive (in -σω, -σεις
, etc.) did not differ in form from the future indicativeοἵ κέ με τι_μήσουσι
. Cf. I 155, 297.
βούλεται
(A 67), if a present subjunctive, should have a long thematic vowel, since the corresponding indicative form (βούλεται
) is thematic. βούλητʼ
, with elision of -αι
, has been proposed as an emendation.
ἐρείομεν
(A 62) or ἐρήομεν
. ‘let us ask,’ may be regarded as subjunctive of [ἔρημι
]. It is commonly referred to ἐρέω
.
§ 149. Themes in -α, -ε
, or -ο
, of which the second aorist indicative is non-thematic (i. e. the -μι
forms ἔβην, ἔθεμεν
, [ἐκίχην
], ἔγνων, ἔδομεν
, etc.) form the second aorist subjunctive by lengthening the final vowel of the theme before the endings -ω, -ῃς, -ῃ
, etc.: α
becomes η; ε
becomes ει
before ο
and ω
, but η
in other situations, although some editors write it η
always; ο
becomes ω
. E. g. (1) From ἔβην
(βα-
): βήω, -βήῃ, -βήομεν
. (2) From ἔθεμεν
(θε-
): θείω
(θήω
), θήῃς, θήῃ, θείομεν
(θήομεν
), and in the middle -θείομαι
(-θήομαι
). (3) From [ἐκίχην
] (κιχε-
): κιχείω
(κιχήω
), κιχείομεν
(κιχήομεν
). (4) From ἔγνων
(γνο-
): γνώω, γνώῃς, γνώῃ, γνώομεν, γνώωσι
. (5) From ἔδομεν
(δο-
): δώῃ, δώομεν, δώωσι
(ν
), also δῷσι
and δώῃσιν
(= δώῃ
).
(a) Under this head belongs also the second aorist passive, e. g., of δάμνημι, ἐδάμην
(δαμ-ε-
): δαμείω
(δαμήω
), δαμήῃς, δαμήῃ, δαμήετε
.
(b) The contracted Attic forms also sometimes appear in the text.
In general, the tense suffixes are the same in Homer as in Attic Greek.
Present and Imperfect. Many presents end in τελείω
(τελες
+ιω
, i. e. τελέω
. A 5, ἐτελείετο
, Attic ἐτελεῖτο. πνείω
(Attic πνέω
) is probably for πνεϝ-ω
.
note.—Very many contract verbs in -άω
, which were not contracted in the earlier epic tongue, often appear in the MSS. in so-called “assimilated” or (according to others) “distracted” forms. E. g. for ἀντιάουσαν
(A 31), ἐστιχάοντο
(B 92), ἐλάειν
(X 400), and μαιμα?ων
(O 742), the MSS. have respectively ἀντιόωσαν, ἐστιχόωντο, ἐλάα_ν
, and μαιμώων
. Such artificial forms, which probably were due to the influence of the Attic contractions (ἀντιῶσαν, ἐστιχῶντο, ἐλᾶν, μαιμῶν
) on the epic dialect, are replaced throughout the accompanying text by the original uncontracted forms.
§ 151. Future. Sigma of the future suffix may be dropped between two vowels (cf. § § 91, end; 142, 1). E. g. A 61, δαμᾷ
for δαμάσει
. A 204, τελέεσθαι
. A 344 and B 366, μαχέονται. Ζ
368, δαμάουσιν. Χ
67, ἐρύουσιν
.
For double sigma forms in future and aorist see § 52, § 53, 54.
§ 153. Mixed Aorist. Some sigmatic aorists have the thematic vowel (instead of -α-
) before the personal endings; so they have sigma in common with first aorists, and ἀπ-εβήσετο
(βαίνω
). A 496, ἀν-εδυ?σετο
(δύω
). οἴσετε
, and οἰσέμεναι
, imperative and infinitive, respectively, from οἰ-
(present φέρω
). ἄξετε
, and ἀξέμεν
, imperative and infinitive, respectively, of ἄγω
. I 617, λέξεο
, imperative of root λεχ
, ‘lie.’ ὄρσεο
, imperative of ὄρνυ_μι
.
§ 154. Special Tense Suffixes. 1. (πωλέσκετο
, ‘he used to frequent.’ A 492, ποθέεσκε
, ‘he used to yearn for.’ I 331, δόσκον
(second aorist of δίδωμι
), ‘I repeatedly gave.’
2. σχέθε
(Attic ἔσχε
). A 491, φθινύθεσκε
, i. e. φθινυ
+ θε
+ σκε
(iterative).
1. φρήτρηφιν
(dative). B 388, ἀμφὶ στήθεσφιν
(dative). B 794, ναῦφιν
(genitive plural). I 618, ἅμα δʼ ἠόι φαινομένηφιν
(dative singular), ‘with the appearance of dawn.’
2. οὐρανόθεν
. Often it gives the force of a genitive, especially in pronouns: A 180, σέθεν
. A 525, ἐξ ἐμέθεν
. An adverbial example is A 247, ἑτέρωθεν
, ‘from the other side,’ ‘over against him.’
3. κηρόθι
, ‘in the heart.’ An adverbial example is A 243, ἔνδοθι
.
4. Πυλοι-γενέος
(B 54), ‘born at Pylos’; χαμαι-εῦναι
(οἴκοι
(A 113).
5. ἀγορήνδε
, ‘to an assembly.’ A 169, Φθι?ηνδʼ
(ε
). A 185, κλισίηνδε
. An adverbial example is ἐνθάδε
(A 367), ‘hither.’
The suffix is seen appended to a genitive, Ἄιδόσδε
(
1. ἡγήτωρ
(ἡγέομαι
), ‘leader’; κοσμήτωρ
(κοσμέω
), ‘marshaler’; α?ρητήρ
(α?ράομαι
), ‘one who prays,’ ‘priest.’
2. ἀνάβλησις
(ἀναβάλλομαι
), ‘postponement’; φάτις
(φημί
), ‘saying’; βοητυ?ς
(βοάω
), ‘outcry’; παυσωλή
(παύω
), ‘pause’; ἐλπωρή
(ἔλπομαι
), ‘hope.’
3. ἄροτρον
(ἀρόω
), ‘plow.’
Masculine patronymics end in Πηληιάδης, Πηλεΐδης, Πηλεΐων
(Πηλεύς
), ‘son of Pe leus’; Θεστορίδης
(Θέστωρ
), ‘son of Thestor’; Μεγάδης
, ‘son of Megas’; Κρονι?ων
, ‘son of Cronus.’
§ 158. Feminine patronymics end in -ίδος
) and Βρι_σηίς
(Βρι_σεύς
), ‘daughter of Briseus’; Χρυ_σηίς
(Χρυ?σης
), ‘daughter of Chryses’; Εὐηνι?νη
, ‘daughter of Evenus.’
An important adjective suffix, added to noun stems, is σκιόεις
(σκιή
), ‘shady’; ἠχήεις
(ἠχή
), ‘echoing’; χαρίεις
(χάρις
), ‘graceful.’
The following, in effect, form superlatives:
ἀριπρεπής
, ‘very conspicuous.’
ἐρίτι_μος
, ‘very precious.’
δια-
): ζάθεος
, ‘very holy.’
δαφοινός
, ‘very red.’
ἠγάθεος
(ἠ-
for ἀ-
; cf. § 35), ‘very holy;’ ἀγάννιφος
, ‘very snowy.’
The following are negative:
ἀ
[ϝ
]έκων
(ἑκών
), ‘unwilling’; ἀνέστιος
, ‘hearthless.’
νημερτής
(ἁμαρτάνω, ἥμαρτον
), ‘unerring’; νηλ
(ε
)ής
(ἔλεος
), ‘pitiless.’
Prepositions were originally adverbs of place or time. This primitive force is very common in epic poetry. E. g. A 39, ἔπι
, ‘overhead.’ A 48, μέτα
, ‘in[to] the midst.’ A 233, ἔπι
, ‘thereon,’ ‘besides.’ A 462, ἔπι
, ‘thereon.’
Often the adverb must be translated in close connection with a verb, although several words may intervene. Epic poetry exhibits a period in word-formation when the adverbial prefix had not yet become attached to its verb, as is regularly the case in Attic Greek. This separation, if separation may be said of things not yet united, is commonly called tmesis (Greek τμῆσις
, ‘a cutting’). E. g. A 25, ἐπὶ ... ἔτελλεν
, ‘enjoined upon.’ A 67, ἀπὸ ... ἀμῦναι
, ‘to ward off.’ A 98, ἀπὸ ... δόμεναι
, ‘to give back.’
Wherever prepositions retain their primitive adverbial force they are accented; and dissyllabic prepositions that have the force of adverbs are accented on the penult. E. g. A 142, ἔν, ἔς
. A 39, ἔπι
. A 258, πέρι
.
When separated from a following verb by tmesis, the preposition regularly has the accent familiar in Attic Greek. E. g. A 25, ἐπὶ ... ἔτελλεν
.
Dissyllabic prepositions that εἰς, ἐν
, and ἐξ
, receive an accent. E. g. A 162, ᾧ ἔπι πόλλʼ ἐμόγησα
, ‘for which I toiled much.’ A 350, θῖνʼ ἔφ̓ ἁλὸς πολιῆς
, ‘to the strand of the hoary sea.’ B 39, θήσειν γὰρ ἔτʼ ἔμελλεν ἔπ̓ ἄλγεα κτλ.
, where θήσειν ... ἔπ̓
is for ἐπι-θήσειν
. A 125, πολίων ἔξ
, ‘out of the cities.’ A 222, δώματʼ ἔς
.
But a monosyllabic preposition is not accented when placed between two nouns (or a noun and adjective) in agreement. Under similar circumstances the accent of a dissyllabic preposition is retracted only when the former noun is more important.
If a preposition belongs to an omitted ἐστί
or εἰσί
, it retains its primitive accent as an adverb. E. g. A 174, πάρʼ ἐμοί γε καὶ ἄλλοι
, i. e. πάρεισι
. A 515, οὔ τοι ἔπι δέος
, i. e. ἔπεστι
. E 740, ἔν
(= ἔνεστι
).
In the accompanying text ἀνά, διά, ἀμφί
, and ἀντί
are accented as in Attic; that is, they never have their accent retracted even when they are plainly adverbs or follow their case § 166). E. g. A 310, ἀνά
.
But in ἄμφ̓
is written to avoid ambiguity. And ἄνα
(cf. Z 331) is written in the sense of ἀνά-στηθι
, ‘up!’
We consider the important or exceptional uses of cases. No attempt is here made to illustrate
The nominative singular is sometimes used as a vocative or accompanies a vocative. E. g. Ζεῦ πάτερ ... Ἠέλιός θʼ ὃς κτλ.
B 8, οὖλος Ὄνειρε
.
The nominative is used in exclamations. E. g. B 38, νήπιος
, ‘foolish king!’ A 231, δημοβόρος βασιλεύς
. I 630, σχέτλιος. Π
422, αἰδώς
.
The partitive genitive may denote space within which action occurs. E. g. B 785, διέπρησσον πεδίοιο
, ‘they passed over the plain.’ So
The partitive genitive may denote the part touched or taken hold of. E. g. A 197, ξανθῆς δὲ κόμης ἕλε Πηλείωνα
, ‘and she caught the son of Peleus by his yellow hair.’ So A 323, χειρός. Π
762, κεφαλῆφιν
.
The partitive genitive may follow adverbs of place E. g. τῃ ... πολίων ἐὺ ναιομενα?ων
, ‘to some place in cities well peopled.’ So A 432.
The genitive, in a use allied to the partitive, sometimes indicates a person (or thing) about whom (or which) something is heard, learned, known, etc. E. g. (1) After πυνθάνομαι
: A 257, εἰ σφῶιν τάδε πάντα πυθοίατο μαρναμένοιιν
, ‘if they should learn all this about you two contending.’ So X 438, Ἕκτορος
. (2) After διδάσκομαι
: διδασκόμενος πολέμοιο
, ‘learning about war.’ (3) After γιγνώσκω
: B 348 f. πρὶν καὶ Διὸς αἰγιόχοιο
γνώμεναι, εἴ τε ψεῦδος ὑπόσχεσις, εἴ τε καὶ οὐκί
, ‘even before they know about aegis-bearing Zeus, whether his promise be a deception or not.’ (4) After οἶδα
: ἄλλου δʼ οὔ τευ οἶδα
, ‘I do not know about anybody else.’ Z 438, θεοπροπίων ἐὺ εἰδώς
, ‘well versed in prophecies.’ I 440, οὔ πω εἰδόθʼ
(εἰδότα
) ... πτολέμοιο
, ‘not yet familiar with war.’
The genitive, besides the constructions of the genitive proper, has the functions of an ablative also; under the ablatival genitive, familiar from Attic Greek, are included the relations of comparison and separation. E. g. A 186, φέρτερος σέθεν
, ‘mightier than you.’ A 113, Κλυταιμνήστρης προβέβουλα
, ‘I prefer [her] to Clytaemnestra.’ A 258, πέρι
[ἐστὲ
] Δαναῶν
, ‘are superior to the Danaans.’ A 224, λῆγε χόλοιο
, ‘ceased from anger.’ A 359, ἀνέδυ_ πολιῆς ἁλός
, ‘rose from the hoary sea.’ A 401, ὑπελυ?σαο δεσμῶν
, ‘loosed from under his bonds.’ A 30, τηλόθι πάτρης
, ‘far from native land.’
The dative of interest (including “advantage or disadvantage”) is very common; it is often found where the English idiom requires a possessive adjective or noun. E. g. A 55, τῷ γὰρ ἐπὶ φρεσὶ θῆκε θεα?
, ‘the goddess laid it on his heart’ (‘on the heart for him’). A 104, ὄσσε δέ οἱ
, ‘and his eyes.’ A 188, οἷ ἦτορ
, ‘his heart.’
Besides the constructions of the dative proper (“to” or “for” relations), the dative has the functions of (a) a locative case and (b) an instrumental case. E. g. (a) A 24, θυ_μῷ
, ‘in the heart.’ A 45, ὤμοισιν
, ‘on the shoulders.’ (b) A 77, ἔπεσιν καὶ χερσὶν ἀρήξειν
, ‘will help with words and hands.’ B 199, σκήπτρῳ ἐλάσασκεν
, ‘would strike with the staff.’
With the instrumental use are included the relations of (a) cause, (b) accompaniment, and (c) manner. E. g. (a) οὐ μὲν γὰρ φιλότητί γʼ ἔκευθον ἄν
, ‘for they would not have hidden [him] out of friendship surely.’ (b) A 277, ἐριζέμεναι βασιλῆι
, ‘to strive with a king.’ υἱέι σῷ ἑπόμηι
, ‘I followed your son.’ (c) A 418, τῷ σε κακῇ αἴσῃ τέκον
, ‘so I gave you birth “under an evil star,”’ κλαγγῇ ... ἴσαν
, ‘advanced with clamor.’
The accusative, without a preposition, is often used as a limit of motion. This use includes persons as well as places and things. E. g. A 139, ὅν κεν ἵκωμαι
, ‘to whomsoever I come.’ So A 240, υἷας
. A 317, οὐρανόν
.
§ 180. σχῆμα καθʼ ὅλον καὶ μέρος
.—Not infrequently a verb takes two objects in the same case (commonly accusative, but the dative is found also), of which the former indicates a τί δέ σε φρένας ι?κετο πένθος;
‘why has grief come to your heart’ (‘to you, to the heart’)? τὸν βάλε δεξιὸν ὦμον
, ‘he hit him on the right shoulder.’
While the tenses as a rule describe action as in Attic Greek, the following uses deserve special notice.
The historical present is not found in Homer. All presents are real presents and must be translated as such.
The future middle takes the place of the future passive (which occurs in δαήσεαι
and μιγήσεσθαι
only). E. g. A 204, τελέεσθαι
, ‘will be fulfilled.’
The gnomic aorist, commonly used in general statements, is to be translated by the English present. E. g. A 218, ὅς κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τʼ ἔκλυον
(aorist) αὐτοῦ
, ‘whosoever obeys the gods, him especially they harken to.’ τʼ
(ε
) marks the general statement here, as often.
The aorist middle sometimes has a reflexive or passive sense. E. g. λίπετʼ
(ο
), ‘was left.’
The aorist participle does not always denote time prior to that of the leading verb, but often the same time. E. g. A 148, ὑπόδρα ἰδὼν προσέφη
, ‘with a sullen look he addressed.’ A 596, μειδήσα_σα ... ἐδέξατο ... κύπελλον
, ‘with a smile she took the cup.’
So too when the participle stands in a construction after the verb: A 380 f., τοῖο δʼ Ἀπόλλων
εὐξαμένου ἤκουσεν
, ‘and Apollo heard him as he prayed.’ B 182, ξυνέηκε θεᾶς ὄπα φωνησα?σης
, ‘he heard the voice of the goddess as she spoke.’
Note that in all these instances the aorist emphasizes the
The perfect denotes a present condition and is to be rendered by the English present. E. g. A 37, ἀμφιβέβηκας
, ‘guardest.’ A 125, δέδασται
, ‘is divided.’ A 173, ἐπέσσυται
, ‘is moved thereto.’ A 228, τέτληκας
, ‘you have courage.’ A 239, εἰρύαται
, ‘defend.’ A 278, ἔμμορε
, ‘shares in.’ B 90, πεποτήαται
, ‘are in flight’ (a lasting condition), while B 89, πέτονται
means ‘fly,’ an action which if continued or repeated produces the condition described by the perfect.
Similarly the pluperfect is to be translated by the English past. E. g. A 221, βεβήκει
, ‘was gone’ (= went quickly). B 93, δεδήει
, ‘was ablaze.’ B 95, τετρήχει
, ‘was in confusion.’
Homer has six distinct ways of making independent future statements. They illustrate different degrees of vividness:
1. The future indicative alone.
2. The future indicative with κε
(or rarely ἄν
), § 190.
3. The subjunctive (generally aorist) alone, § 191.
4. The subjunctive with κε
or ἄν
, § 192.
5. The optative alone, § 205.
6. The optative with κε
or ἄν
, § 206.
Of these the first, third, fourth, and sixth are the more common; the first and sixth alone survived in ordinary Attic Greek.
The future indicative with κε
(or ἄν
) is a construction denied to the earliest period of the epic by some scholars, who maintain (a) that the verbs of A 175 (τι_μήσουσι
), I 155, and some other places are intended for aorist subjunctives § 146); (b) that undoubted instances of the future indicative with κε
or ἄν
(e. g. A 139, κεχολώσεται
, future perfect) may be attributed to later Homeric poets, who imitated a construction which they falsely understood to be future indicative with κε
, and which was in reality the aorist subjunctive. This view presents obvious difficulties, since it involves the question of the earlier and later parts of the epic.
Other scholars accept the construction f the future in dicative with κε
in οἵ κέ με τι_μήσουσι
, ‘who in that case [i. e. if you flee] will honor me.’ It is often difficult to render the particle without awkwardness, however.
The subjunctive, used in an independent sentence, has a force nearly equivalent to that of the future indicative. It is commonly found in negative sentences (with οὐ
). E. g. Z 459, καί ποτέ τις εἴπῃσιν
, ‘and some day men will say.’ A 262, οὐ γάρ πω τοίους ἴδον α?νέρας οὐδὲ ἴδωμαι
, ... ‘nor shall l see.’
The subjunctive in an independent clause is often accompanied by κε
or ἄν
. E. g. A 137, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἕλωμαι
, ‘then I myself will take’ (a prize). A 184, ἐγὼ δέ κʼ ἄγω Βρι_σηίδα
, ‘but I shall [in that case] lead away Briseis.’ A 205, τάχ̓ ἄν ποτε θυμὸν ὀλέσσῃ
, ‘one day soon he shall lose his life.’ οὐκ ἄν τοι χραίσμῃ κίθαρις τά τε δῶρʼ Ἀφροδίτης
, ‘there shall not avail you, then, the lyre and those gifts of Aphrodite.’
As in Attic Greek the subjunctive of the first person, used alone, may express an exhortation. The first person plural is common. Examples of the first person singular are: Z 340, ἀλλʼ ἄγε νῦν ἐπίμεινον, ἀρήια τεύχεα δυ?ω
, ... ‘let me put on my armor of war.’ So X 418 and 450. Compare A 26, μὴ ... κιχείω
, ‘let me not find’ etc., a threat.
The dubitative or deliberative subjunctive is used in a question of appeal, usually in the first person. An example of the third person is A 150, πῶς τίς τοι πρόφρων ἔπεσιν πείθηται Ἀχαιῶν
, ‘how shall any man of the Achaeans heartily obey your bidding?’
The independent subjunctive is sometimes used with μή
to express a concern lest something may take place. A wish to avert the object of fear is contained in the construction. See B 195,
The dependent subjunctive in a final clause may be accompanied by ἀλλʼ ἴθι, μή μ̓ ἐρέθιζε, σαώτερος ὥς κε νέηαι
, ... ‘in order that you may go,’ Attic ἵνα ἵῃς
or something similar. So too B 385. Cf. Attic ὅπως ἄν
with the subjunctive.
The dependent subjunctive in protasis may be used without κε
or ἄν
, both in (a) future conditions and in (b) present general conditions—a use almost unknown to Attic Greek. E. g. (a) A 340 f., εἰ ... γένηται
(Attic ἐα?ν
). X 86, εἰ ... κατακτάνῃ
. (b) A 80, κρείσσων γὰρ βασιλεύς, ὅτε
(Attic ὅταν
) χώσεται ἀνδρὶ χέρηι
, ‘for the king is mightier, when he becomes enraged at a man of meaner rank.’ A 163 f., ὁππότʼ
(ε
) ... ἐκπέρσως̓
(ι
), for Attic ὁπόταν
with subjunctive.
1. Examples with κε
(ἄν
) are: (a) A 128, ἀποτι?σομεν, αἴ κέ
(Attic ἐα?ν
) ποθι Ζεὺς
δῷσι
etc. (b) A 166, ἤν ποτε ... ἵκηται. Γ
25 f., εἴ περ ἂν
...σεύωνται
.
The dependent subjunctive is often introduced by αἴ κεν
...
βούλεται
(subjunctive), see § 147. A 207, αἴ κε πίθηαι
, ‘in the hope that you will obey.’ B 72, ἀλλʼ ἄγετʼ, αἴ κέν πως θωρήξομεν κτλ.
, ... ‘in the hope that we may arm’ etc.
1. After a secondary tense this subjunctive is commonly changed to the optative. E. g. B 96 ff., ἐννέα δέ σφεας
κήρυ_κες ... ἐρήτυον, εἴ ποτʼ ἀυ_τῆς
σχοίατʼ
(ο
) κτλ.
, ... ‘if haply they would refrain from shouting.’
§ 199. After verbs of attention, care, and effort, Homer does not express the aim (as the Attic Greek does) by ὅπως
with the future indicative; instead, he regularly uses object clauses (with ὡς, ὅπως
) containing the subjunctive in the primary sequence, and generally the optative in the secondary sequence. E. g. λεύσσει, ὅπως ὄχʼ ἄριστα ... γένηται
, ‘he looks to see how the very best result may come.’ B 3 f., μερμήριζε ... ὡς Ἀχιλῆα
τι_μήσαι κτλ.
, ‘he considered how he might honor Achilles.’
But ὅπως
with the future indicative occurs (a) in simple relative clauses and (b) in dependent interrogative clauses. E. g. (a) A 136, ἄρσαντες κατὰ θυ_μόν, ὅπως ἀντάξιον ἔσται
, ‘suiting [the gift] to my heart, in whatever way it shall be equivalent.’ (b) I 251, φράζευ, ὅπως Δαναοῖσιν ἀλεξήσεις κακὸν ἦμαρ
, ‘consider how you shall ward from the Danaans the day of evil.’ A 343 f., see note θέλγει, ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλήσεται
, is exceptional, in indicating a real purpose.)
The optative without κε
or ἄν
is common in future (υ?μῖν μὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν κτλ.
, ‘may the gods give to you’ etc. A 42, τι?σειαν
. B 259, μηκέτʼ
(ι
) ... ἐπείη
, a form of curse. μὴ ... λάβοι κτλ. Σ
107, ὡς ... ἀπόλοιτο κτλ.
The optative is sometimes found in present unattained (impossible) wishes also, where Attic Greek uses the imperfect indicative—not an Homeric construction. E. g. αἴθʼ , ὅσον ἥσσων εἰμί, τόσον σέο φέρτερος εἴην
, ‘oh that I were as much superior to you as I am your inferior!’ (Cf. § 207.)
Impossible wishes are also expressed, as in Attic, by αἴθʼ ὄφελες ἄγονός τʼ ἔμεναι κτλ.
ὤφελλον
, etc., likewise occurs (
The optative may express a concession or mild command. E. g. ναίοιτε Τροίην
ναίοιμεν
τῷ δέ κε νι_κήσαντι γυνὴ καὶ κτήμαθʼ ἕποιτο
The potential optative sometimes occurs without κε
or οὐ μὲν γάρ τι κακώτερον ἄλλο πάθοιμι
Far more common than the preceding is the potential optative with κε
or ἄν
, the Attic construction. E. g. νῦν γάρ κεν ἕλοι πόλιν εὐρυάγυιαν
οὐκ ἂν δὴ μείνειας ἀρηίφιλον Μενέλα_ον· γνοίης χʼ , οἵου κτλ.
The potential optative with κε
or ἄν
is sometimes found referring to present or past time in situations where the Athenians would have used the imperfect or aorist indicative with ἄν
—for example, in the conclusion of contrary to fact conditions. The exact translation of such optatives must be determined by the context. Compare the similar use of the optative in present impossible wishes, § 202. E. g. ἦ γὰρ ἄν, Ἀτρεΐδη, νῦν ὕστατα λωβήσαιο
ψεῦδός κεν φαῖμεν κτλ.
φαίης κεν
1. In a few instances
The dependent potential optative with κε
(ἄν
—is common. E. g. εἴ κεν θανατόν γε φύgtγοιμεν
εἰ ρύγοιμεν
, protasis of the less vivid future condition.
The dependent optative is found in indirect questions, in the secondary sequence. E. g. ἀφείη
represents a deliberative subjunctive of the ἀφήῃ
(Attic ἀφῇ
).
The optative of indirect discourse, representing the indicative of direct discourse, is almost unknown in the simple epic dialect. Examples are rare and are nearly all confined to the Odyssey.
The more familiar uses of the infinitive as nominative and as accusative (in Homer always without the article), and in indirect discourse, being common to both Attic and Homeric Greek, need no special comment.
The infinitive is commonly explanatory and often expresses purpose. This meaning as well as that mentioned in § 212 is a survival of an original καί σφωιν δὸς ἄγειν
θαῦμα ἰδέσθαι
, ‘a marvel to behold.’ φίλα ... μαντεύεσθαι
The infinitive sometimes expresses result, although it is often impossible to dissociate the idea of purpose, too. E. g. τίς τʼ ἄρ σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι;
The infinitive is often used with the force of an imperative in commands, prayers, and decrees. E. g. παῖδα δʼ ἐμοὶ λῦσαί τε φίλην τά τʼ ἄποινα δέχεσθαι
σὺ τόν γε ... καθάπτεσθαι
ἀγέμεν
μὴ πρι?ν ἠέλιον δῦναι καὶ ἐπὶ κνέφας ἐλθεῖν
Τρῶας ἔπειθʼ Ἑλένην καὶ κτήματα πάντʼ ἀποδοῦναι